•  
  •  
 

Prior Publisher

The Association of Digital Forensics, Security and Law (ADFSL)

Abstract

Threats are communicative acts, but it is not always obvious what they communicate or when they communicate imminent credible and serious risk. This paper proposes a research- and theory-based set of over 20 potential linguistic risk indicators that may discriminate credible from non-credible threats within online threat message corpora. Two prongs are proposed: (1) Using expert and layperson ratings to validate subjective scales in relation to annotated known risk messages, and (2) Using the resulting annotated corpora for automated machine learning with computational linguistic analyses to classify non-threats, false threats, and credible threats. Rating scales are proposed, existing threat corpora are identified, and some prospective computational linguistic procedures are identified. Implications for ongoing threat surveillance and its applications are explored.

References

Abbasi, A. & Chen, H. (2005). Identification and comparison of extremist-group Web forum messages using authorship analysis. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 20, 5, 67–75.

Abbasi, A. & Chen, H. (2008). Writeprints: A stylometric approach to identity-level identification and similarity detection in cyberspace. ACM Transactions on Information Systems (TOIS) 26, 2, 7.

Abbasi, A. & Chen, H. (2008). CyberGate: A design framework and system for text analysis of computer-mediated communication. MIS Quarterly 32(4), 811- 837.

Apte, C., Damerau, F., Weiss, S. M. (1998). Text mining with decision trees and decision rules. Proceedings of the Conference on Automated Learning and Discovery: Learning from Text and the Web. Workshop 6: Learning from Text and the Web. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=5E0DDF906ABE950272ED4 A129D7E84B3?doi=10.1.1.39.6018&rep=re p1&type=pdf

Argamon, S., Dhawle, S., Koppel, M., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2005/2006). Lexical predictors of personality type. In Proceedings of the 2005 Joint Annual Meeting of the Interface and the Classification Society of North America (pp. 1–16). St. Louis, MO: Interface. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summ ary?doi=10.1.1.60.6697

Barnes, M. T., Gordon, W. C., & Hudson, S. M. (2001). The crime of threatening to kill. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 312- 319.

Baumgartner, J. V., Scalora, M. J., & Plank, G. L. (2001). Case characteristics of threats toward state government targets investigated by a Midwestern State. Journal of Threat Assessment, 1, 41-60.

Beller, S., Bender, A., & Jie, S. (2009). Conditional promises and threats in Germany, China, and Tonga: Cognition and emotion. Journal of Cognition & Culture, 9(1/2), 115-139. doi: 10.1163/156853709X414674

Beller, S., Bender, A., & Kuhnmünch, G. (2005). Understanding conditional promises and threats. Thinking & Reasoning, 11(3), 209-238. doi: 10.1080/13546780442000141

Bernstein, H. A. (1981). Survey of threats and assaults directed toward psychotherapists. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 35(4), 542-549.

Biber, D. ( 1991). Variation across speech and writing. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Bondü, R., & Scheithauer, H. (2014). Leaking and death-threats by students: A study in German schools. School Psychology International, 35(6), 592-608. doi: 10.1177/0143034314552346

Borum, R., Cornell, D. G., Modzeleski, W., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). What can be done about school shootings? A review of the evidence. Educational Researcher, 39(1), 27-37. doi: 10.3102/0013189X09357620

Borum, R., Fein, R., Vossekuil, B., & Berglund, J. (1999). Threat assessment: Defining an approach for evaluating risk of targeted violence. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 17, 323-337.

Brewster, M. P. (2000). Stalking by former intimates: Verbal threats and other predictors of physical violence. Violence and Victims, 15, 41-54.

Brezina, V., & Gablasova, D. (2015). Is there a core general vocabulary? Introducing the "new general service list". Applied Linguistics, 36(1), 1-22.

Brown, G. P., Dubin, W. R., Lion, J. R., & Garry, L. J. (1996). Threats against clinicians: A preliminary descriptive classification. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 24(3), 367-376.

Brown, K. N., & MacAlister, D. (2006). Violence and threats against lawyers practicing in Vancouver, Canada. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 48(4), 543-571. doi:10.3138/cjccj.48.4.543

Bucci, W., & Maskit, B. (2005). Building a weighted dictionary for referential activity. In Y. Qu, J. Shannon, & J. Wiebe (Eds.), Computing attitude and affect in text (pp. 49–60). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.

Bulling, D., Scalora, M., Borum, R., Panuzio, J., & Donica, A. (2008). Behavioral science guidelines for assessing insider threats. Lincoln, NE: The University of Nebraska Public Policy Center. Paper 37. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/publicpolic ypublications/37

Calhoun, F. S. (1998). Hunters and howlers: Threats and violence against federal judicial officials in the United States, 1789- 1993 (USMS No. 80). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, United States Marshals Service.

Calhoun, F. S., & Weston, S. W. (2008). On public figure howlers. In J. R. Meloy, L. Sheridan, & J. Hoffman (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: A psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 105-122). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Calhoun, F. S., & Weston, S. W. (2016). Threat assessment and management strategies: Identifying the howlers and hunters (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.

Campbell, J., Webster, D., Koziol-McLain, J., Block, C., Campbell, D., Curry, M., & ... Laughon, K. (2003). Risk factors for femicide in abusive relationships: results from a multisite case control study. American Journal of Public Health, 93(7), 1089-1097. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.7.1089

Carter, N. R. (2010). We shall be watching you, you’re going to die, and other threats: A corpus-based speech act approach. UTA Working Papers in Linguistics, 3. https://uta-ir.tdl.org/utair/bitstream/handle/10106/5192/Threatcorpus- 48-61.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

Castelfranchi, C., & Guerini, M. (2007). Is it a promise or a threat? Pragmatics & Cognition, 15(2), 277- 311.

Celli, F., & Rossi, L. (2012). Long chains or stable communities: The role of emotional stability in Twitter conversations. In Proceedings of the workshop on semantic analysis in social media (pp. 10–17). Association for Computational Linguistics.

Chung, C. K., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2011). Using computerized text analysis to assess threatening communications and behavior. In C. Chauvin (Ed.), Threatening communications and behavior: Perspectives on the pursuit of public figures (pp. 3-32). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Churcher, F. P., & Nesca, M. (2013). Risk factors for violence in stalking perpetration: A meta-analysis. FWU Journal of Social Sciences, 7(2), 100-112.

Cohen, K., Johansson, F., Kaati, L., & Mork, J. C. (2014). Detecting linguistic markers for radical violence in social media. Terrorism and Political Violence, 26(1), 246-256. doi:10.1080/09546553.2014.849948

Colombo, G. B., Burnap, P., Hodorog, A., & Scourfield, J. (2016). Analysing the connectivity and communication of suicidal users on twitter. Computer Communications, 73, 291-300. http://dx.doi/org/10.1016/j.comcom.201 5.07.018doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2015.07.018

Crowner, M. L., Peric, G., Stepcic, F., & Lee, S. (2005). Assailant and victim behaviors immediately preceding inpatient assault. Psychiatric Quarterly, 76, 243-256. Doi: 10.1007/s11126-005-2977-2

Darrow, C. D. (2014). Targeted threats: An examination of thematic content and approach behavior displayed by mentally ill and non-mentally ill contactors. Dissertation Abstracts International, 74. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcon tent.cgi?article=1060&context=psychdiss

Davis, J. A. (2001). The assessment of potential threat: A second look. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 16(1), 1- 10.

Davis, J. A., Siota, R., & Stewart, L. (1999). Future prediction of dangerous and violent behavior: Psychological indicators and considerations for conducting and assessment of potential threat. Canadian Journal of Clinical Medicine, 6(3), 44-57.

Davis, J. A., Stewart, L. M., & Siota, R. (2001). Future prediction of dangerousness and violent behavior: Psychological indicators and considerations for conducting an assessment of potential threat. In J. A. Davis (Ed.), Stalking crimes and victim protection: Prevention, intervention, threat assessment, and case management (pp. 261-282). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Desmet, B., & Hoste, V. (2012). Combining lexico-semantic features for emotion classification in suicide notes. Biomedical Informatics Insights, 5(Suppl. 1), 125-128. doi:10.4137/BII.S8960

Desmet, B., & Hoste, V. (2013). Emotion detection in suicide notes. Expert Systems with Applications, 40(16), 6351-6358. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2013.05.050

Dietz, P. E., Matthews, D. B., Martell, D. A., Stewart, T. M., Hrouda, D. R., & Warren, J. (1991a). Threatening and otherwise inappropriate letters to members of the United States Congress. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 36, 1445-1468.

Dietz, P. E., Matthews, D. B., Van Duyne, C., Martell, D. A., Parry, C. D. H., Stewart, T., Warren, J., & Crowder, J. D. (1991b). Threatening and otherwise inappropriate letters to Hollywood celebrities. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 36, 185-209.

Dinakar, K., Reichart, R., & R. Lieberman, R. (2011). Modeling the detection of textual cyberbullying. Proceedings of the International Conference on Weblog and Social Media - Social Mobile Web Workshop. Barcelona, Spain.

Doren, D. M., Miller, R., & Maier, G. J. (1993). Predicting threatening psychopathic patient behavior in an inpatient milieu. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 37(3), 221-229. doi: 10.1177/0306624X9303700303

Drude, S., Broeder, D., & Trilsbeek, P. (2014). The Language Archive and its solutions for sustainable endangered languages corpora. Book 2.0, 4(1/2), 5-20.

Drysdale, D. A., & Modzeleski, W. (2010). Campus attacks: Targeted violence affecting institutions of higher education. Washington DC: U.S. Secret Service, U.S. Department of Education, and Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Dunn, J. (2008). Operations of the LAPD Threat Management Unit. In J. R. Meloy, L. Sheridan, & J. Hoffman (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: A psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 325-342). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Egnoto, M. J., & Griffin, D. J. (2016). Analyzing language in suicide notes and legacy tokens: Investigating clues to harm of self and harm to others in writing. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000363

Every-Palmer, S., Barry-Walsh, J., & Pathé, M. (2015). Harassment, stalking, threats and attacks targeting New Zealand politicians: A mental health issue. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 49(7), 634-641. doi: 10.1177/0004867415583700

Fein, R. A., Vossekuil, B., & Holden, G. A. (1995, September). Threat assessment: An approach to prevent targeted violence. National Institute of Justice Research in Action (NCJ 155000). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

Fein, R. A., Vossekuil, B., Pollack, W. S., & Borum, R. (2002). Threat assessment in schools: A guide to managing threatening situations and to creating safe school climates. Washington DC: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education.

Fein, R., & Vossekuil, B. (2000). Protective intelligence and threat assessment investigations: A guide to managing threatening situations and to creating safe school climates. Washington, DC: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education.

Fitzgerald, J. R. (2007). The FBI's Communicated Threat Assessment Database. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 76(2), 6-9.

Fraser, B. (1975). Warning and threatening. Centrum, 3, 169-190. Gales, T. (2010b). Ideologies of violence: A corpus and discourse analytic approach to stance in threatening communications. International Journal of Speech, Language & the Law, 17(2), 299- 302. doi:10.1558/ijsll.v17i2.299

Gales, T. (2011). Identifying interpersonal stance in threatening discourse: An appraisal analysis. Discourse Studies, 13(1), 27-46. doi: 10.1177/1461445610387735

Gales, T. (2015). The stance of stalking: a corpus-based analysis of grammatical markers of stance in threatening communications. Corpora, 10(2), 171-200. doi:10.3366/cor.2015.0073

Gales, T. A. (2010a). Ideologies of violence: A corpus and discourse analytic approach to stance in threatening communications. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Davis, CA.

Garfinkel, S., Farrell, P., Roussev, V., & Dinolt, G. (2009). Bringing science to digital forensics with standardized forensic corpora. Digital Investigation, 6S2-S11. doi:10.1016/j.diin.2009.06.016

Geurts, R., Granhag, P. A., Ask, K., & Vrij, A. (2016). Taking threats to the lab: Introducing an experimental paradigm for studying verbal threats. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 3, 53-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tam0000060

Gill, O., & Ben-Shahar, O. (2005). Credible coercion. Texas Law Review, 83(3), 717- 780.

Glasgow, K., & Schouten, R. (2014). Assessing violence risk in threatening communications. Workshop on computational linguistics and clinical psychology: From linguistic signal to clinical reality (pp. 38-45). Baltimore, MD: Association for Computational Linguistics. http://acl2014.org/acl2014/W14- 32/pdf/W14-3205.pdf

Glass, N., Laughon, K., Rutto, C., Bevacqua, J., & Campbell, J. C. (2008). Young adult intimate partner femicide: An exploratory study. Homicide Studies, 12(2), 177-187.

Goffman, E. (1974). Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gottschalk, L. A. (2000). The application of computerized content analysis of natural language in psychotherapy research now and in the future. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 54(3), 305-311.

Gottschalk, L. A., & Bechtel, R. J. (2000). Pcad 2000: Psychiatric content analysis and diagnosis. Technical report, GB Software LLC, Corona Del Mar, CA.

Griffiths, T. L., Steyvers, M., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2007). Topics in semantic representation. Psychological Review, 114(2), 211-244. doi:10.1037/0033- 295X.114.2.211

Hadjidj, R., Debbabi, M., Lounis, H., Iqbal, F., Szporer, A., & Benredjem, D. (2009). Towards an integrated e-mail forensic analysis framework. Digital Investigations 5, 124-137.doi.10.1016/j.diin.2009.01.004

Hadnagy, C., & Fincher, M. (2015). Phishing dark waters: The offensive and defensive sides of malicious E-mails. Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons.

Häkkänen, H. (2006). Finnish bomb threats: Offence and offender characteristics. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 8(1), 1-8.

Hamel, J., Desmarais, S. L., & Nicholls, T. L. (2007). Perceptions of motives in intimate partner violence: Expressive versus coercive violence. Violence and Victims, 22, 563- 576.

Hancock, J. T., Beaver, D. I., Chung, C. K., Frazee, J., & Pennebaker, J. W., Graesser, A., & Cai, Z. ( 2010). Social language processing: A framework for analyzing the communication of terrorists and authoritarian regimes. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 2(2), 108–132.

Handelman, L. D., & Lester, D. (2007). The content of suicide notes from attempters and completers. Crisis: The Journal of Crisis Intervention and Suicide Prevention, 28(2), 102-104. doi:10.1027/0227-5910.28.2.102

Hatakeyama, S., Masui, F., Ptaszynski, M., & Yamamoto, K. (2016). Statistical analysis of automatic seed word acquisition to improve harmful expression extraction in cyberbullying detection. International Journal of Engineering and Technology Innovation, 6(2), 165-172.

Hermann, M. G. ( 2003). Assessing leadership style: Trait analysis. In J. M. Post (Ed.), The psychological assessment of political leaders with profiles of Saddam Hussein and Bill Clinton (pp. 178–212). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Hillbrand, M. (2001). Threatening and nonthreatening verbal aggression as predictors of physical aggression in violent psychiatric patients. Journal of Threat Assessment, 1, 63-74.

Hoffmann, J. (2009). Public figures and stalking in the European context. European Journal on Criminal Policy & Research, 15(3), 293-305. doi: 10.1007/s10610-009-9104-0

Hoffmann, J., & Sheridan, L. (2008). Stalking, threatening, and attacking corporate figures. In J. R. Meloy, L. Sheridan, & J. Hoffman (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: A psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 123-142). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Iqbal, F., Binsalleeh, H., Fung, B. C.M., & Debbabi, M. (2010). Mining writeprints from anonymous e-mails for forensic investigation. Digital Investigation 7(1), 56- 64. doi:10.1016/j.diin.2010.03.003

Jackson, G. M. (2012). Predicting malicious behavior: Tools and techniques for ensuring global security. Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons.

James, D. V., Kerrigan, T. R., Forfar, R., Farnham, F. R., & Preston, L. F. (2010). The fixated threat assessment centre: Preventing harm and facilitating care. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 21, 521-536.

James, D. V., McEwan, T. E., MacKenzie, R. D., Meloy, J. R., Mullen, P. E., Pathé, M. T., & ... Darnley, B. J. (2010). Persistence in stalking: A comparison of associations in general forensic and public figure samples. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 21(2), 283-305. doi: 10.1080/14789940903388994

James, D. V., Mullen, P. E., Pathé, M. T., Meloy, J. R., Farnham, F. R., Preston, L., & Darnley, B. (2008). Attacks on the British Royal Family: The role of psychotic illness. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry & the Law, 36(1), 59-67.

James, D. V., Mullen, P. E., Pathé, M. T., Meloy, J. R., Preston, L. F., Darnley, B., & Farnham, F. R. (2009). Stalkers and harassers of royalty: The role of mental illness and motivation. Psychological Medicine, 39(9), 1479-1490. doi:10.1017/S0033291709005443

Jenkins, D. M. (2009). When should threats be seen as indicative of future violence? Threats, intended violence, and the intimacy effect. In F. S. Calhoun & S. W. Weston (Eds.), Threat assessment and management strategies: Identifying howlers and hunters (pp. 151-199). Boca Raton, FL: CRC/Taylor & Francis.

Joachims, T. (1998). Text categorization with support vector machines: Learning with many relevant features. Proceedings of the European Conference on Machine Learning (ECML). New York, NY: Springer.

Kissine, M. (2008). From predictions to promises: How to derive deontic commitment. Pragmatics & Cognition, 16, 471-491. doi: 10.1075/p&c.16.3.03kis

Komuda, R., Ptaszynski, M., Rzepka, R., & Araki, K. (2016, July). Recognizing and converting cockney rhyming slang for cyberbullying and crime detection. IJCAI 2016 International Workshop on Language Sense on Computer. New York, NY. http://arakilab.media.eng.hokudai.ac.jp/~p taszynski/data/Komuda-cameraready.pdf

Kontostathis, A., Edwards, L., & Leatherman, A. (2010). Text mining and cybercrime. In M. W. Berry & J. Kogan (Eds.), Text mining: Applications and theory. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Koppel, M., Schler, J. & Argamon, S. (2009). Computational methods in authorship attribution. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 60(1), 9-26. doi: 10.1002/asi.20961

Kovacevic, A., & Nikolic, D. (2015). In M. M. Cruz-Cunha & I. M. Portela (Eds.), Handbook of research on digital crime, cyberspace security, and information assurance (pp. 277-290). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference/IGI Global.

Kropp, P. R., Hart, S. D., & Lyon, D. R. (2008). Risk assessment of public figure stalkers. In J. R. Meloy, L. Sheridan, & J. Hoffman (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: A psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 343-362). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Landauer, T. K., & Dumais, S. T. (1997). A solution to Plato's problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review, 104(2), 211-240. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.104.2.211

Larionovs, A., Teilans, A., & Grabusts, P. (2015). CORAS for threat and risk modeling in social networks. Procedia Computer Science, 43, 26-32. doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2014.12.005

Latham, A., Crockett, K., & Bandar, Z. (2010, January). A conversational expert system supporting bullying and harassment policies. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Agents and Artificial Intelligence (pp. 163–168). Frente Lisboa, Portugal: INSTICC (Institute for Systems and Technologies of Information, Control and Communication.

Leonard, R. A. (2005/06). Forensic linguistics: Applying the scientific principles of language analysis to issues of the law. International Journal of the Humanities, 3, 1447-9559.

Lieberman, H., Dinakar, K., & Jones, B. (2011). Let’s gang up on cyberbullying. Computer, 44, 93–96.

Limberg, H. (2009). Impoliteness and threat responses. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(7), 1376-1394. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2009.02.003

Lindberg, N., Oksanen, A., Sailas, E., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2012). Adolescents expressing school massacre threats online: Something to be extremely worried about? Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 6doi:10.1186/1753- 2000-6-39

López-Rousseau, A., Diesendruck, G., & Benozio, A. (2011). My kingdom for a horse: On incredible promises and unpersuasive warnings. Pragmatics & Cognition, 19(3), 399-421.

MacDonald, J. M. (1968). Homicidal threats. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

Maier, G. (1996). Managing threatening behavior. The role of talk down and talk up. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services, 34(6), 25-30.

Mairesse, F., Walker, M. A., Mehl, M. R., & Moore, R. K. ( 2007). Using linguistic cues for the automatic recognition of personality in conversation and text. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 3 0 , 457–500.

Maras, M-H. (2015). Unprotected speech communicated via social media: What amounts to a true threat? Journal of Internet Law, 19, 3-9.

Marco, M. A. (2008). Influence of situational factors on the codification and interpretation of impoliteness. Pragmatics, 18(4), 757-773.

Martínez-Cabeza, M. A. (2009). Dangerous words: Threats, perlocutions and strategic actions. In B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, & P. Stalmascczyk (Eds.), Cognitive approaches to language and linguistic data (pp. 269-283). Frankfurt, GDR: Peter Lang.

Mazur, A. (1983). Bomb threats against American nuclear-energy facilities. Journal of Political & Military Sociology, 11(1), 109-121.

McCann, J. T. (2001). The relationship between threats and violence in juvenile stalking. Journal of Threat Assessment, 1, 81-90.

McCann, J. T. (2002). Threats in schools: A practical guide for managing violence. New York, NY: Haworth.

McEllistrem, J. E. (2004). Affective and predatory violence: A bimodal classification system of human aggression and violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10, 1-30.

Meloy, J. R. (1999). Stalking: An old behavior, a new crime. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 22, 85-99.

Meloy, J. R. (2000). Violence risk and threat assessment. San Diego, CA: Specialized Training Services.

Meloy, J. R. (2002). Pathologies of attachment, violence, and criminality. In A. M. Goldstein & I. B. Weiner (Eds.), Handbook of psychology (Vol. 11: Forensic psychology, pp. 509-526). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Meloy, J. R. (2011). Approaching and attacking public figures: A contemporary analysis of communications and behavior. In C. Chauvin (Ed.), Threatening communications and behavior: Perspectives on the pursuit of public figures (pp. 75- 106). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Meloy, J. R., & Gill, P. (2016). The lone-actor terrorist and the TRAP-18. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 3, 37-52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tam0000061

Meloy, J. R., & O’Toole, M. E. (2011). The concept of leakage in threat assessment. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 29(4), 29(4), 513-527. doi: 10.1002/bsi.986

Meloy, J. R., & O'Toole, M. E. (2011). The concept of leakage in threat assessment. Behavioral Sciences & The Law, 29(4), 513-527. doi:10.1002/bsl.986

Meloy, J. R., Hoffmann, J. Roshdi, K., Glaz- Ocik, J., & Guldimann, A. (2014). Warning behaviors and their configurations across various domains of targeted violence. In J. R. Meloy & J. Hoffmann (Eds.), International handbook of threat assessment (pp. 39-53). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Meloy, J. R., Hoffmann, J., Guldimann, A., & James, D. (2012). The role of warning behaviors in threat assessment: An exploration and suggested typology. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 30, 256- 279. doi:10.1002/bsl.999

Meloy, J. R., Hoffmann, J., Roshdi, K., & Guldimann, A. (2014). Some warning behaviors discriminate between school shooters and other students of concern. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 1(3), 203-211. doi: 10.1037/tam0000020

Meloy, J. R., James, D. V., Farnham, F. R., Mullen, P. E., Pathe, M., Darnley, B., & Preston, L. (2004). A research review of public figure threats, approaches, attacks, and assassinations in the United States. Journal of Forensic Sciences (Wiley-Blackwell), 49(5), 1086-1093.

Meloy, J. R., Mohandie, K., & Green, M. (2008). A forensic investigation of those who stalk celebrities. In J. R. Meloy, L. Sheridan, & J. Hoffman (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: A psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 37-54). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Meloy, J. R., Sheridan, L, & Hoffman, J. (2008). Public figure stalking, threats, and attacks: The state of the science. In J. R. Meloy, L. Sheridan, & J. Hoffman (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: A psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 3-34). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Meloy, J. R., White, S. G., & Hart, S. (2013). Workplace Assessment of Targeted Violence Risk: The Development and reliability of the WAVR-21. Journal of Forensic Sciences (Wiley-Blackwell), 58(5), 1353-1358. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.12196

Merriam, T. V. N. & Matthews, R. A. J. (1994). Neural computation in stylometry II: An application to the works of Shakespeare and Marlowe. Literary and Linguistic Computing, 9, 1–6.

Miah, M., Rahman, W., Yearwood, J., & Kulkarni, S. (2015). Constructing an inter-post similarity measure to differentiate the psychological stages in offensive chats. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 66(5), 1065–1081.

Mikolov, T., Yih, W-t., & Zweig, G. (2013). Linguistic regularities in continuous space word representations. Proceedings of HLTNAACL- 2013 (pp. 746-751). Association for Computational Linguistics. http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/N13- 1090

Milburn, T. W., & Watman, K. H. (1981). On the nature of threat: A social psychological analysis. New York, NY: Praeger.

Moore, A. P., Mundie, D. A., & Collins, M. L. (2013, July). A system dynamics model for investigating early detection of insider threat risk. Conference Proceedings of the 31st International Conference of the System Dynamics Society. Cambridge, MA. ISBN 978-1-935056-12-06

Morewitz, S. J. (2010). Death threats and violence: New research and clinical perspectives. New York, NY: Springer.

Mundie, D. A., Moore, A. P., & McIntire, D. (2012). Building a multidimensional pattern language for insider threats. Proceedings of the Conference on Pattern Languages of Programs. Tucson, AZ.

Murdock, J. I., Bradac, J. J., & Bowers, J. W. (1984). Effects of power on the perception of explicit and implicit threats, promises, and thromises: A rule-governed perspective. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 48, 344-361.

Nandhini, B. S., & Sheeba, J. I. (2015). Online social network bullying detection using intelligence techniques. Procedia Computer Science, 45, 485-492. doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2015.03.085

Nekvasil, E. K., & Cornell, D. G. (2012). Student reports of peer threats of violence: Prevalence and outcomes. Journal of School Violence, 11(4), 357-375. doi:10.1080/15388220.2012.706764

Newhill, C. E. (2002). Client threats toward social workers: Nature, motives, and response. Journal of Threat Assessment, 2, 1-19.

Nitta, T., Masui, F., Ptaszynski, M., Kimura, Y., Rzepka, R., & Araki, K. (2013, October). Detecting cyberbullying entries on informal school websites based on category relevance maximization. Proceedings of the 6th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (IJCNLP 2013, pp. 579-586). Nagoya, Japan. http://aclweb.org/anthology/I/I13/I13- 1066.pdf

Norman, W. T. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(6), 574-583. doi:10.1037/h0040291

O’Dea, B., Larsen, M., Batterham, P., Calear, A., & Christensen, H. (2016). Talking suicide on Twitter: Linguistic style and language processes of suicide-related posts. European Psychiatry, 33S329. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2016.01.727

O’Hair, H. D., Bernard, D. R., & Roper, R. R. (2011). Communication-based research related to threats and ensuing behavior. In C. Chauvin (Ed.), Threatening communications and behavior: Perspectives on the pursuit of public figures (pp. 33-73). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Oberlander, J., & Nowson, S. (2006). Whose thumb is it anyway?: Classifying author personality from weblog text. In Proceedings of the COLING/ACL on Main conference poster sessions (pp. 627– 634). Association for Computational Linguistics.

Oster, U. (2010). Using corpus methodology for semantic and pragmatic analyses: What can corpora tell us about the linguistic expression of emotions? Cognitive Linguistics, 21(4), 727-763. doi:10.1515/COGL.2010.023

O'Toole, M. E., & National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (U.S.). (2000). The school shooter: A threat assessment perspective. Quantico, VA: FBI Academy.

Palarea, R. E., Zona, M. A., Lane, J. C., & Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J. (1999). The dangerous nature of intimate relationship stalking: Threats, violence, and associated risk factors. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 17, 269-283.

Pang, B. & Lee, L. (2005). Seeing stars: Exploiting class relationships for sentiment categorization with respect to rating scales. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (pp. 115-124). Association for Computational Linguistics. doi: 10.3115/1219840.1219855

Pennebaker, J. W., Chung, C. K., Ireland, M., Gonzales, A., & Booth, J. W. (2007). The development and psychometric properties of LIWC2007. Austin, TX: LIWC.net

Pennebaker, J. W., Francis, M. E., & Booth, R. J. (2001). Linguistic inquiry and word count: LIWC 2001. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Peters, G. Y., Ruiter, R. C., & Kok, G. (2013). Threatening communication: A critical reanalysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory. Health Psychology Review, 7(Suppl 1), S8-S31. doi:10.1080/17437199.2012.703527

Peters, G. Y., Ruiter, R. C., & Kok, G. (2014). Threatening communication: A qualitative study of fear appeal effectiveness beliefs among intervention developers, policymakers, politicians, scientists, and advertising professionals. International Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 71-79. doi:10.1002/ijop.12000

Pichon, S., de Gelder, B., & Grèzes, J. (2009). Two different faces of threat. Comparing the neural systems for recognizing fear and anger in dynamic body expressions. Neuroimage, 47(4), 1873-1883. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.084

Polluck, W. S., Modzeleski, W., & Rooney, G. (2008). Prior knowledge of potential schoolbased violence: Information students learn may prevent a targeted attack. Washington DC: U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education.

Poria, S., Cambria, E., & Gelbukh, A. (2015). Deep convolutional neural network textual features and multiple kernel learning for utterance-level multimodal sentiment analysis. Proceedings of the 2015 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, (pp. 2539– 2544).

Prentice, S., Rayson, P., & Taylor, P. J. (2012). The language of Islamic extremism: Towards an automated identification of beliefs, motivations and justifications. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 17(2), 259-286. doi:10.1075/ijcl.17.2.05pre

Ptaszynski, M., Dybala, P., Matsuba, T., Masui, F., Rzepka, R., & Araki, K. (2010, April). Mach

Download

Share

COinS
 
 

To view the content in your browser, please download Adobe Reader or, alternately,
you may Download the file to your hard drive.

NOTE: The latest versions of Adobe Reader do not support viewing PDF files within Firefox on Mac OS and if you are using a modern (Intel) Mac, there is no official plugin for viewing PDF files within the browser window.